In cases where we cannot actually decide between two differencing orders, then we have to choose the order providing the minor standard deviation in the differenced series.
Let us consider an example to check if the series is stationary. We will use the Augmented Dickey-Fuller Test (adfuller()) from the statsmodels package of Python Programming Language.
Example:
from statsmodels.tsa.stattools import adfuller
from numpy import log
import pandas as pd
mydata = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
res = adfuller( mydata.value.dropna())
print('Augmented Dickey-Fuller Statistic: %f' % res[0])
print('p-value: %f' % res[1])
Output:
Augmented Dickey-Fuller Statistic: -2.464240
p-value: 0.124419
Explanation:
In the above example, we have imported the adfuller module along with the numpy 's log module and pandas . We have then used the pandas library to read the CSV file. We have then used the adfuller method and printed the values to the user.
It is necessary to check whether the series is stationary or not. If not, we have to use difference; else, d becomes zero .
The Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test’s null hypothesis is that the time series is not stationary. Thus, if the ADF test’s p-value is less than the significance level (0.05), then we will reject the null hypothesis and infer that the time series is definitely stationary. As we can observe, the p-value is more significant than the level of significance. Therefore, we can difference the series and check the plot of autocorrelation as shown below.
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.graphics.tsaplots import plot_acf, plot_pacf
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams.update({'figure.figsize' : (9,7), 'figure.dpi' : 120})
# Importing data
df = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
# The Genuine Series
fig, axes = plt.subplots(3, 2, sharex = True)
axes[0, 0].plot(df.value); axes[0, 0].set_title('The Genuine Series')
plot_acf(df.value, ax = axes[0, 1])
# Order of Differencing: First
axes[1, 0].plot(df.value.diff()); axes[1, 0].set_title('Order of Differencing: First')
plot_acf(df.value.diff().dropna(), ax = axes[1, 1])
# Order of Differencing: Second
axes[2, 0].plot(df.value.diff().diff()); axes[2, 0].set_title('Order of Differencing: Second')
plot_acf(df.value.diff().diff().dropna(), ax = axes[2, 1])
plt.show()
Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, we have imported the required libraries and modules. We have then imported the data and plot different graphs. We have plotted the original series graph, first-order differencing, and second-order differencing along with their autocorrelation graphs. As we can observe, the time series has reached stationarity with two differencing orders. However, when we have a look at the plot of autocorrelation for the Second order of differencing, the lag going into the far negative zone pretty faster, indicating the series might have been over differenced.
Hence, we will tentatively be fixing the differencing order because the series is not properly stationary, or we can say that the series has weak stationarity.
This can be done as shown below.
Example:
from pmdarima.arima.utils import ndiffs
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
X = df.value
# Augmented Dickey Fuller Test
adftest = ndiffs(X, test = 'adf')
# KPSS Test
kpsstest = ndiffs(X, test = 'kpss')
# PP Test
pptest = ndiffs(X, test = 'pp')
print("ADF Test =", adftest)
print("KPSS Test =", kpsstest)
print("PP Test =", pptest)
Output:
ADF Test = 2
KPSS Test = 0
PP Test = 2
Explanation:
In the above example, we have imported the ndiffs method of the pmdarima module. We have then imported the dataset and defined ‘X’ as the object containing the values from the dataset. We used the ndiffs method to perform ADF, KPSS, and PP Tests and printed their results to the users.
Finding the order of the Auto-Regressive (AR) term §
In the following section, we will discuss the steps to check whether the model requires any Auto-Regressive (AR) terms . The number of AR terms needed can be found by studying the Partial Autocorrelation (PACF) plot .
We can consider Partial Autocorrelation as the correlation between the series and its lag once we exclude the contributions from the intermediate lags. Thus, PACF tends to convey the pure correlation between the series and its lag. Hence, we can identify whether that lag is required in the Auto-Regressive (AR) term or not.
Partial Autocorrelation of lag(k) of a series is the coefficient of that lag in the Auto-Regression Equation of Y.
Now, let us understand how to find the number of AR terms?
As we know, any Autocorrelation in a stationary series can be rectified by inserting enough AR terms. Thus, we can initially take the order of the Auto-Regressive (AR) term equivalent to as many lags that cross the limit of significance in the PACF Plot.
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.graphics.tsaplots import plot_acf, plot_pacf
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams.update({'figure.figsize':(9,3), 'figure.dpi':120})
# importing data
df = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, sharex = True)
axes[0].plot(df.value.diff()); axes[0].set_title('Order of Differencing: First')
axes[1].set(ylim = (0,5))
plot_pacf(df.value.diff().dropna(), ax = axes[1])
plt.show()
Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, we have imported the required libraries, modules, and datasets. We have then plotted the graphs to represent the First Order Differencing and its partial autocorrelation.
As a result, we can observe that the PACF lag 1 is pretty significant above the line of significance. Lag 2 also appears to be substantial, entirely maintaining to cross the limit of significance (blue region). However, we will be conservative and fix the p as one tentatively.
Finding the Order of the Moving Average (MA) term (q)
Similar to what we have looked at earlier at the PACF plot for the number of Auto-Regressive (AR) Terms, we can use the ACF plot to find the number of Moving Average (MA) Terms. A Moving Average (MA) term is, theoretically, the lagged forecast’s error.
The ACF plot expresses the number of Moving Average (MA) terms needed to remove the autocorrelation in the stationary series.
Let us consider the following example to understanding the autocorrelation plot of the differenced series.
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.graphics.tsaplots import plot_acf, plot_pacf
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams.update({'figure.figsize' : (9,3), 'figure.dpi' : 120})
# importing data
mydata = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, sharex = True)
axes[0].plot(mydata.value.diff()); axes[0].set_title('Order of Differencing: First')
axes[1].set(ylim = (0, 1.2))
plot_acf(mydata.value.diff().dropna(), ax = axes[1])
plt.show()
Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, we have imported the required libraries, modules, and datasets. We have then plotted the graphs to represent the First Order Differencing and its Autocorrelation. As a result, we can observe that some lags are pretty above the line of significance. So, let us fix q as 2, tentatively. We can also use the simpler model in case of any doubt that adequately demonstrates the Y.
Handling the A Slightly Under or Over-Differenced Time Series
Sometimes, a situation may occur where the series is slightly under-differenced, and differencing it one time extra makes the series somewhat over-differenced. In such cases, we have to add one or multiple additional Auto-Regressive (AR) Terms for the slightly under-differenced Time Series and add an extra Moving Average (MA) Term for the slightly over-differenced Time Series.
Once we have discussed most of the topics, let us begin creating an ARIMA Model for Time Series Forecasting.
Building the ARIMA Model
Once we have determined the values of p, q, and d, we will try creating the ARIMA model. The implementation of the ARIMA() module is shown below:
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.tsa.arima_model import ARIMA
# importing data
mydata = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
# Creating ARIMA model
mymodel = ARIMA(mydata.value, order = (1, 1, 2))
modelfit = mymodel.fit(disp = 0)
print(modelfit.summary())
Output:
ARIMA Model Results
==============================================================================
Dep. Variable: D.value No. Observations: 99
Model: ARIMA(1, 1, 2) Log Likelihood -253.790
Method: css-mle S.D. of innovations 3.119
Date: Thu, 15 Apr 2021 AIC 517.579
Time: 21:10:37 BIC 530.555
Sample: 1 HQIC 522.829
=================================================================================
coef std err z P>|z| [0.025 0.975]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
const 1.1202 1.290 0.868 0.385 -1.409 3.649
ar.L1.D.value 0.6351 0.257 2.469 0.014 0.131 1.139
ma.L1.D.value 0.5287 0.355 1.489 0.136 -0.167 1.224
ma.L2.D.value -0.0010 0.321 -0.003 0.998 -0.631 0.629
Roots
=============================================================================
Real Imaginary Modulus Frequency
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
AR.1 1.5746 +0.0000j 1.5746 0.0000
MA.1 -1.8850 +0.0000j 1.8850 0.5000
MA.2 545.5472 +0.0000j 545.5472 0.0000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Explanation:
In the above example, we have imported the new module called ARIMA from the statsmodels class and create the ARIMA model of the order 1, 1, and 2. We have then printed the summary of the model to the user. As we can observe, the overview of the model reveals a lot of details. The middle table is the table of coefficients where the ‘coef’ values act as the related terms’ weights.
We can also notice that the MA2 term’s coefficient tends to zero, and the P-Value in the ‘P > |z|’ column is exceedingly insignificant. The P-Value should be less than 0.05, ideally for the corresponding X to be significant.
Now, let us try rebuilding the model without the MA2 term.
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.tsa.arima_model import ARIMA
# importing data
mydata = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
# Creating ARIMA model
mymodel = ARIMA(mydata.value, order = (1, 1, 1))
modelfit = mymodel.fit(disp = 0)
print(modelfit.summary())
Output:
ARIMA Model Results
==============================================================================
Dep. Variable: D.value No. Observations: 99
Model: ARIMA(1, 1, 1) Log Likelihood -253.790
Method: css-mle S.D. of innovations 3.119
Date: Thu, 15 Apr 2021 AIC 515.579
Time: 21:34:00 BIC 525.960
Sample: 1 HQIC 519.779
=================================================================================
coef std err z P>|z| [0.025 0.975]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
const 1.1205 1.286 0.871 0.384 -1.400 3.641
ar.L1.D.value 0.6344 0.087 7.317 0.000 0.464 0.804
ma.L1.D.value 0.5297 0.089 5.932 0.000 0.355 0.705
Roots
=============================================================================
Real Imaginary Modulus Frequency
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
AR.1 1.5764 +0.0000j 1.5764 0.0000
MA.1 -1.8879 +0.0000j 1.8879 0.5000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Explanation:
In the above example, we have reduced the AIC of the model, which is actually good. We can also observe that the AR1 and MA1 terms’ P-Values’ have been improved and are highly significant (<< 0.05).
Now, let us plot the residuals in order to ensure that there are no patterns such as constant mean and variance.
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.tsa.arima_model import ARIMA
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams.update({'figure.figsize' : (9,3), 'figure.dpi' : 120})
# importing data
mydata = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
# Creating ARIMA model
mymodel = ARIMA(mydata.value, order = (1, 1, 1))
modelfit = mymodel.fit(disp = 0)
# Plotting Residual Errors
myresiduals = pd.DataFrame(modelfit.resid)
fig, ax = plt.subplots(1,2)
myresiduals.plot(title = "Residuals", ax = ax[0])
myresiduals.plot(kind = 'kde', title = 'Density', ax = ax[1])
plt.show()
Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, we have plotted the residual errors and density graphs. We can observe that the residual errors look fair with around zero mean and uniform variance. Let us plot the graph representing the actuals vs. fitted values with the help of the plot_predict() function.
Example:
import numpy as np, pandas as pd
from statsmodels.tsa.arima_model import ARIMA
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams.update({'figure.figsize' : (9,3), 'figure.dpi' : 120})
# importing data
mydata = pd.read_csv('mydataset.csv', names = ['value'], header = 0)
# Creating ARIMA model
mymodel = ARIMA(mydata.value, order = (1, 1, 1))
modelfit = mymodel.fit(disp = 0)
# Actual vs Fitted
modelfit.plot_predict(dynamic = False)
plt.show()
Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, we have now plotted the ‘actuals vs fitted’ graph and set dynamic = False . As a result, the in-sample lagged values are utilized for forecasting.
Thus, the model gets trained up until the past value makes the following forecast. Therefore, it can create the fitted forecast, and actuals appear preciously delicate.